Special Groups and Gender Role Conflict-click the drop down boxes below the figure to view each topic

Experiencing GRC and feeling vulnerable is a common experience for many men and so continued research on vulnerable men or  “men at risk” is important.

GRC research has focused on specific groups of vulnerable men as shown in the figure below. This file lists references on 14 groups including:  adolescent boys & high school students, police officers & fire fighters, homeless & incarcerated men, athletes, fathers and sons, sex offenders, couples, older men, military men & veterans. The collective evidence on these groups indicated that GRC can be clinically relevant when helping men who are vulnerable and at risk.

Highschool & Adolescents Students

Addelston, J. (1995). Gender role conflict in elite independent high schools. (Doctoral dissertation, SUNY Graduate School). Dissertation Abstracts International. 57/05B, 3450.

Blazina, C., Cordova, M., Pisecco, S., Settle, A. (2007). Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents: Correlates with masculine ideology, Thymos: Journal of Boyhood Studies, 1, 191-204.

Blazina, C., Pisecco, S., & O’Neil, J.M. (2005) An adaptation of the Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents: Psychometric issues and correlates with psychological distress. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 39-45.

Borthick, M.J. (1997). Gender role conflict and suicidal ideation in an adolescent and young adult population: Age 18-24 year-old. (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee State University). Dissertation Abstracts International 58, 4437.

Choi, H., Kim, J., Hwang, M., & Heppner, M.J. (2010). Self esteem as a mediator between instrumentality, gender role conflict, and depression in  male Korean high school students. Sex Roles, 63, 361-372.

Christensen, M.I. (2001). Gender role conflict in adolescent males. (Doctoral dissertation, Chicago School of Professional Psychology). Dissertation Abstracts International, 63, 2051

Coleman, A.S. (2015). The role of fathers in masculinity and obesity in African American adolescent males. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Connecticut), Storrs, CT.

Coonerty-Femiano, A. (2009). Developing and evaluating an anger management intervention for boys: What does gender have to do with it? (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College). Dissertation Abstracts International, 69, 577.

Dukes, A. E. (2007). Adolescent males: Predicting attitudes towards guns and violence based on perceived gender stereotypes. (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 67/11, 3242900.

Jackson, S.Z. (2008). The effects of masculinity and gender role conflict on adolescent boys' psychological well being. (Doctoral dissertation, Tennessee State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 68/09

Jacobson, C.M.,  Marrocco, F., Kleinman, M., Gould, M.S. (2011). Restrictive emotionality, depressive symptoms, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among high school students. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 40, 656-665.

Kwiathowski, B. (2016). Growing up male: A social-emotional program for grade 11 males with behavioral needs in a BC secondary school. (Master Thesis, Trinity Western University), British Columbia, Canada.

Mansor. N.Z., Othman, Z., Yasin, M., Husain, M., Yaacob, M.J. (2014). Gender role conflict among  Malay adolescent boys. International Medicine Journal, 21, 528-530.

Mansor, N.Z. ,Othman, Z., Yaacob, M.J.  Mohd Yasin, M.A. (2016). Validation of Malay Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents. International Medical Journal, 23(3), 219-221.

Marston, P. (2020). The experience of gender role conflict in schools shooters: A qualitative study (2020). Doctoral dissertations, 2388. https://opencommons.Uconn.edu/dissertations/2388.

Murauskaite, Z. (2012). The relationship between gender role conflict and psychological well-being among late adolescent boys. Thesis, Mykolo Romeria University, Psychology Department, Vilnius, Lithuania.

O’Beaglaoich, C., Conway, R., & Morrison, T.G. (2014). Psychometric properties of the Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents among Irish boys. Psychology of Men and Masculinity. DOI  10.1037/a0036018.

O’Beaglaoich, C., McCutcheon, J., Conway, P.F., Hanafin, J., & Morrison, T.G. (2020). Adolescent suicide ideation, depression, and self-esteem: Relationship to a new measure of gender role conflict. Front.Psychol. 11:111.doi:10.3389lfpsych.2020. 00111.

O’Beaglavich, C., Conway, R., Morrison, T.G. (2015). Psychometric properties of the Gender Role Conflict Scale among Irish boys. Psychology of men and Masculinity, 16, 33-41.

Yang, X. & Xin, M. (2018). “Boy Crises” or Girl Risk”? The  gender differences in non- suicidal self-injurious behavior among middle-school students in China and its relationship to gender role conflict and violent experiences.

Walls, D.A. (1991). Adolescent sexual offenders: Sex role orientation, attitudes toward women, gender role conflict, and loneliness. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, Tennessee.

Watt, R.H. (2003). Safeguarding factors for gender role conflict in adolescent males. (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro). Dissertation Abstract International, 64, 3206.

Watt, R. & Borders, L.D.(2005). Boy's perception of the male role: Understanding gender role conflict in adolescent males. Journal of Men's Studies, 13, 267-280.

O’Beaglavich, C., Morrison, T.G., Nielson, E., Ryan, T.  (2015). Experiences of gender role conflict as described by Irish boys. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 16, 312-325.

Police Officers, Fire Fighters

Faircloth, P.K. (2011). Gender, identity, and career: An investigation  of gender role conflict and job satisfaction with police officers. (Doctoral dissertation, Oakland University) ProQuest Dissertation and Theses data base (UMI No. 3576684).

Lancione, A. (2015). The relationships between gender role conflict, coping, burnout among male law enforcement officers (Master thesis, Mount Mary University), Milwaukee, WI.

Peterson, M.A. (1991). Male role identification, gender role conflict, and help seeking: Attitudes of male police officers. (Doctoral dissertation, University of San Francisco) Dissertation Abstracts International, 52/09, 3186.

Rooney, L. (2011). Police attitude toward individuals with intellectual disabilities: An investigation of age, education, contact, knowledge, & gender role conflict. (Doctoral dissertation, University Leicester), Leicester, Great Britain.

Wester, S.R., Arndt, D., Sedivy, S.K., Arndt, L. (2010). Male police officers and stigma associated with counseling: The role of anticipated risks, anticipated benefits and gender role conflict. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 11, 286-302.

Varvel, S.J. (2008). Gender role conflict, problem solving appraisal, and the psychological functioning of firefighters. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Missouri-Columbia). Dissertation Abstracts International.  Pro\ quest Dissertations, and theses data bases (UMI No. 3458963).

Homeless and Incarcerated Men

Amato, F. J. (2005). Understanding male violence using gender role conflict and conformity to masculine norms: A forensic sample. (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College). Dissertation Abstracts International,

Amato, F. & MacDonald, J. (2011). Examining risk factors for homeless men: Gender role conflict, help seeking, substance abuse, and violence. Journal of Men's Studies, 19,  227-335.

Amato,, F.J. (2012). The relationship of violence to gender role conflict and conformity to masculine norms in a forensic sample. Journal of Men's Studies, 20, 187-2078.

Hermann, L. K. (2007). A multivariate analysis of masculine gender role strain and its relationship to degrees of substance dependence and degrees of violence in an adult incarcerated population. (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 68/04, 3260872.

Johnston, C.L. (2005). An examination of gender role conflict among male forensic inpatients: Clinical Research Project, Argosy University/Phoenix, Phoenix, Arizona.

Manning, N.N. (2011).Gender role conflict among formerly incarcerated and college black males: The mediating effects of racial identity on psychological distress (Doctoral dissertation, Seton hall University, Dissertation Abstracts International, 72, 11.

Schwartz, J.P., Buboltz, W.C., Seemann, E., & Flye, A. (2004). Personality styles: Predictors of masculine gender role conflict in male prison inmates. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 59-64.

Nguyen, C.M. (2012). Problem solving appraisal, gender role conflict, help-seeking behavior, and psychological distress among men who are homeless. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 13, 270-282.

Athletes, Sports, Athletic identity

Cranswick, I., Tod, D., Clarke, P., Jones, A., (2023). Exploring the impact of athletic identity on gender role conflict and athlete injury fear avoidance in male English professional academy football players. Science Medicine Football, doi: 10.1080/24733938.2023.2224293.

Daltry, R. (2009). The impact of gender role conflict on the quality of life in female athletes, Doctoral dissertation, LaSalle University. Philadelphia, PA.

Lukacs, L. & Tury, F. (2008).  Gender role conflict and depression in males- the possible role of athletic ideal. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 2, 39-47.

Schroeder, D. (2018). The relationship between gender role conflict and academic progress comparing Division II male student athletes (Doctoral dissertation, Bellarmine College). Dissertation Abstract International,

Steinfeldt, J.& Steinfeldt, M.C. ( 2010). Gender role conflict, athletic identity, and help-seeking among high school football players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. 22, 262-273.

Steinfeldt, J.A., Rutkowski, L., Vaugh, E.L., & Steinfeldt, C.M. (2001). Masculinity, moral atmosphere, and moral functioning of Highschool football players. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33, 215-234.

Steinfeldt, J.A., Steinfeldt, M.C., England, B., & Speight, Q.L. (2009). Gender role conflict and stigma toward help-seeking among college football players. Psychology of Men and M asculinity, 10, 261-272.

Steinfeldt, J.A., Wong, Y.J., Hagan, A.R., Hoag, J.M., Steinfeldt, M.C. ( 2011). A contextual examination of gender role conflict among college football players. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 12, 311-323.

Tredinnick, L. (2022). Student-athlete barriers to bystander intervention: : Assessing gender role  conflict and intention to respond to post-sexual assault. Sport Social Work Journal.,1, 189-207.

Fathers, Sons, Fathering

Afzal, N., Noor, S., Nadeem, R., Azhar, N., Kousar, E. (2020). Relationship between father son attachment and gender role conflict in men. Institute of Professional  Psychology, Bahria University, Karachi Campus, Karachi, India.

Berlin, C. (1988). Gender role conflict, future time perspective, and contraceptive behavior among unmarried Black, White and Hispanic adolescent fathers and their nonfather peers. (Doctoral dissertation, New York University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 49/10, 2940.

Coleman, A., O’Neil, J.M., Caldwell, C.H., Ferris, A.M. (2019). Black fathers matter: The role of paternal closeness on adolescent male obesity. Psychology of Men  and  Masculinities, 20, 174-181. http://dxdoi/org/10.1037//men0000183.

Coleman, A., O’Neil, J.M., Ferris, A.M. (2019). The mediation effect between everyday discrimination, gender role conflict, emotional eating, and obesity in African American fathers and sons. Psychology of Men and Masculinities, 20, 182-193.  Http//dxx.doi.org/10.122037/m3n00002012.

Coleman, A.S. (2015). The role fathers on masculinity and obesity in African American adolescent males (Doctoral dissertation: University of Connecticut doi: https//opencommons.uconn.edu/dissertation/907.

Columbo, J.R. (2008). Personal dimensions of masculinity and psychological well being of stay-at-home fathers. Doctoral Dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, MN.

Coyne, A. (2015). Gender role conflict, fathering attitude and participation in parenting interventions. (Master thesis, University of Southern Queensland), Queensland, Australia.

Fitch, M.T. (2003). Levels of family involvement among stay-at-home dads. (Doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University), Dissertation Abstract International, 64, 407.

Jacobsen, M.P. (2005). When sons become fathers: Culture, internalized representations, and generational change in father-son relationships. (Doctoral Dissertation, Smith College), Dissertation Abstract International.

Klann, E.M., Wong, Y.J., & Rydell, R.J. (2018). Firm father figure: A moderated mediation model of perceived authoritarianism and intergenerational transmission of gender messages from father to son. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 65, 500-511.

Martin-Fernandez, J., Levant, R.F. Wolfe, G. (2021). The fathers’ current expectation about son’s masculinity scale (FCEASMS): Development and validation. Psychology of Men and masculinity, 22, (4), 745-756.

Marrocco, F.A. (2001). Gender role conflict in young males as a function of paternal/filial mutual identification and personal warmth and empathy. (Doctoral dissertation, Long Island University). Dissertation Abstract International, 52, 4226.

McAnulty, S.W. (1996). The effectiveness of a parenting program in reducing gender role conflict and changing male role norms on regional Australian fathers. Thesis for graduate dipolma in Counseling Psychology Department, Department of Psychology, Monash University, Churchill, Victoria, Australia.

Mintz, R.D. (1996). Differences in sex-role ideology and gender role conflict among dual-career father role types in families with preschool-aged children. (Doctoral dissertation, Boston College). Dissertation Abstracts International, 5701, 465.

Molenda- Kustanski, Z. (2017). Asian American men and fatherhood: Relationship between acculturation, gender role conflict, parenting efficacy, and father involvement. (Doctoral dissertation, Seton Hall University), South Orange. N.J. Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses. (Accession Order No. 10162765).

Mudd, J. (2013). The relationship between gender role conflict, psychological distress, and attitudes and intentions toward help in divorce gay fathers. (Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University).

Patton, T.L. (2002). The father-son dyad and it relationship to restrictive emotionality and expressiveness in European American college men. (Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University ) Dissertation Abstracts International, 63, 3979.

Robinson, O.V. (2006). Gender role conflict among Black professional fathers. (Doctoral dissertation, Capella University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 67/04.

Robinson, M.A. & Brewster, M.E. (2014). Motivations for fatherhood: Examining internalized heterosexism and gender role conflcit with childless gay and bisexaul men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 15, 49-59.

Robinson, O. (2011). A definition of gender  role conflict among Black professional fathers. The Qualitiative Report, 16, 1389-1406.

Singley, D.B., Cole, B.P., Hammer, J.H., Molloy, S., Rowell, A., & Isacco, A. (2018). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Paternal Involvement With Infants Scale. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 19, 167-183.

Sung,Y. (2020). Korean young adult perceptions of fathers’ gender role conflict, depressive symptoms, and paternal relationship quality: The mediating effects of fathers’ violence. Asia Pacific Journal of Counseling and psychotherapy, 11:1, 76-92.

Swenson, B.H. (1998). Men and self-disclosure about personal topics: The impact of gender role conflict, self-esteem, and early relationship with father. (Doctoral dissertation, The Fielding Institute). Dissertation Abstracts International. 59/08,4543.

Woerner, S.W. (2013) Masculinity, gender role conflict, and attachment between fathers and adolescent sons.(Doctoral dissertation, Fordham University. AAl3557854, https://research.library.fordham.edu/dissertation/AAl3557854.

Sex offenders

Gullickson, G.E. (1993). Gender role conflict in sex offenders. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Iowa). Dissertation Abstracts International, 55/05, 2008.

Todryk, L.W. (1999). Gender role conflict in sex offenders revisited: A follow-up study. (Doctoral dissertation, Alder School of Professional Psychology). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 4256.

Walls, D.A. (1991). Adolescent sexual offenders: Sex role orientation, attitudes toward women, gender role conflict, and loneliness. Unpublished Master's Thesis, Middle Tennessee State University, Tennessee.

Couples Dynamics

Breiding, M. J. (2003). The role of observed hostility and observed dominance as mediators of husband's gender role conflict and outcome for wives. Doctoral dissertation, University of Notre Dame) Dissertation Abstract International, 64, 63222.

Breiding, M. J. (2004) Observed hostility and observe dominance as mediators of the relationship between husbands’ gender role conflict and wife outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 429-436.

Breiding, M., Windle, C.R. & Smith, D.A. (2008). Interspousal criticism: A behavioral mediator between husband's gender role conflict and wife's adjustment. Sex Roles, 59, 880-888.

Celentana, M.A. (2000). Men’s gender role adherence, relational partner’s psychological well-being, and constructivist measures of intimacy. (Doctoral dissertation, Miami University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, 5555.

Davies, P.A. (2017). The relationship between gender role conflict, marital and life satisfaction among Ghanaian couples. Federal State Autonomous Educational Institution of Tertiary Education. Department of Psychology, Moscow, Russia.

Rochlen, A.B. & Mahalik, J.R. (2004). Women's perception of male partner's gender role conflict as predictors of psychological well-being and relationship satisfaction. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 5, 147-157.

Tormeti, L.A.E. (2015). The influence of gender-role strain and martial intimacy on spousal perception of martial conflict among Ghanaian dual career concepts. Research on Humanities and Social Science, 5, 125-131.

Windle, C.R. & Smith, D.A. (2009). Withdrawal moderates the association between husband gender role conflict and wife marital adjustment. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 10, 245-260.

Older Men

Birthistle, I. (1999). Male gender role conflict, coping skills, and hopelessness. Eisteach, Irish Association for Counselling and Therapy, Summer, 2-8.

Brewer, A.M. (1998). The relationships among gender role conflict, depression, hopelessness, and marital satisfaction in a sample of African-American men. (Doctoral dissertation, Kent State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59/06, 3049

Graham, M. (2004). The relationship of gender role conflict, self-efficacy, length of time in retirement, and marital satisfaction with married or recently widowed men’s satisfaction with retirement. (Doctoral dissertation, Oklahoma State University). Dissertation Abstracts International,

Hill, W.G. (2004). The structural relationship among gender role conflict, social support, and health behavior in older men. (Doctoral dissertation, Oregon State University). Dissertation Abstracts International, 64, 4888.

Hill, W.G.& Donatelle, R.J. (2005). The impact of gender role conflict on multidimensional social support in older men. International Journal of Men's Health, 4, 267-276

Jones, D.A. (1998). Gender role conflict, coping, and psychological distress in gay men. (Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University). Dissertation Abstracts International., 59/08, 4468.

Laurent, M.G. (1997). Gender role conflict, cultural identity, and self esteem among African-American men. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Southern California). Dissertation Abstracts International, 59/05,1473

Lontz, M.Q. (2000). The male gender and gender role conflict in relationship to well-being in retired adult men. (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Dissertation Abstracts International, 61, 2606.

Mendelson, E.A. (1988). An exploratory investigation of male gender-role development during early adulthood. (Doctoral dissertation, University of North Carolina). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48, 2119-2120B.

Shepard, D.S. (2002). A negative state of mind: Patterns of depressive symptoms among men with high gender role conflict. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 3, 3-8.

Simonsen, G., Blazina, C., & Watkins, C.E. (2000). Gender role conflict and psychological well-being among gay men. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 47, 85-89.

Stillson, R., O'Neil, J.M., & Owen, S.V. (1991). Predictors of adult men's gender role conflict: Race, class, unemployment, age, instrumentality-expressiveness, and personal strain. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38, 458- 464.

Wade, J.C. (1997). Reference group identity dependence scale: Development and validation of an instrument to measure male psychological relatedness to other males (men, masculinity) (Doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland). Dissertation Abstracts International 57/10, 6657.

Wester, S.R., Pionke, D.R. & Vogel, D.L. (2005) Male gender role conflict, gay men, and same-sex romantic relationships. Psychology.

Military Men & Veterans

Baima, G.P. (2012). Spiritual well-being as a mediator/moderator between male gender role conflict and psychological distress in a veteran sample (Doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee). Dissertation Abstract International 3533193.

Fleming, M.L. (2012). Help seeking attitudes toward mental health issues among military men who have served in combat. (Doctoral dissertation)., St. Mary's University). Dissertation Abstracts International.

Moreland, A.D. (2021). The relationships of gender role conflict, psychological well-being, help seeking attitudes, and PTSD Symptom severity among male veterans. (Doctoral dissertation, Fielding Graduate School),

Orloff, A. (2016). An exploration of male veterans’ sense of masculinity and emotional expressivity. (Doctoral dissertation, William James College). Dissertation Abstracts International.

Thompson, D.A. (2009). Impact of military experience, psychological distress, gender role conflict, self-concealment and perceived stigma on attitudes toward seeking professional help in veterans. (Doctoral dissertation, University of Memphis) Dissertation Abstracts International, 70, 1960

Van Stralen, S. (2016). Emotional expressiveness, sexual orientation, and well-being among military men. (Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University) Dissertation Abstracts International, vol. 77 (1-B) (E).

Van Delft, C.W. (1998). Gender role conflict and psychological distress in army men. (Unpublished Master's thesis, Department of Counseling and Personnel Services, University of Maryland, College Park, MD.

International Men Outside of the United States

Click here to view these categories, cross-listed under the "International Studies Using the Gender Role Conflict Scale" page.