Research Questions & Results

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This file states 7 research questions about men’s GRC and psychological health. Journal references relevant to these questions are listed. The empirical connection between GRC and men’s psychological problems is presented from correlational, moderation, mediation, and situational studies.

Three of the research questions address masculinity ideology and GRC empirical relationship to men’s psychological problems. Overall, there is support for the hypothesis that masculinity ideology and GRC relate to men’s psychological problems.

Two other questions focus on whether gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations relate to psychological problems of both minority men and men in general. This data base provides some initial evidence that GRC restricts men, involves devaluation of self and others, and includes potential violation of others and self.

Another question addressed is whether diversity/multicultural indices correlate, moderate, or mediate men’s GRC with oppressions like: racism, sexism, ethnocentrism, heterosexism, homophobia, biases against racial and sexual minorities. Forty studies have found relationships between GRC and personal oppression, discrimination, abuse, or violence.

The final question addresses how GRC occurs in situations and the causative dynamics of the conflict.

Finally, the O’Neil and Denke (2016) references related to these seven research questions are summarized for easy access to specific studies.

The Research Questions for Consideration:

Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR)? What aspects of masculinity ideology correlates with GRC?
Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to men’s psychological problems? What aspects of masculinity ideologies correlate with men’s problems?
Do the patterns of men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR) correlate with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems? Which problems areas are correlated with GRC?
Does men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, & CBWFR) relate to gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations of self and others in both the intrapersonal and interpersonal realms?
Is there evidence that gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations relate to minority men’s psychological problems?
Do Diversity and Multicultural Indices Relate To , Moderate, or Mediate Men’s Gender Role Conflict?
Do situational dynamics, micro-contexts or environmental cues moderate, mediate, or cause GRC.

Answers below:

Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR)? What aspects of masculinity ideology correlates with GRC?

Table 1 Significant Correlations Between Masculinity Ideology Subscales and GRCS Subscales

Masculinity Ideology Measures & sUBSCALES¹	Total GRCS Score	SPC²	RE	RABBM	CBWFR
MRNI Berger et al., 2005
Restrictive Emotionality	.34**	.33**	.22**	.34**	.17**
Self Reliance	.46**	.32**	.17*	.19*	.11
Rejection of Homosexuals	.28**	.29**	.26**	.46**	.22*
Avoidance of Femininity	.37**	.46**	.32**	.41**	.19*
Traditional Total Score	.46**	.50**	.31**	.38**	.23*
CMNI (Mahalik et al., 2003
Winning	.38***	.52***	.18**	.23***	.02
Emotional Control	.42***	.10	.66***	.39**	.01
Risk Taking	.14	.23***	.02	.06	.05
Violence	.17**	.14	.21**	.11	-.02
Power over Women	.37**	.32**	.30***	.30***	.07
Dominance	.44***	.59***	.21**	.19**	.16**
Playboy	.25**	.18**	.28***	.19**	.03
Self Reliance	.38***	.22***	.42***	.29***	.10
Primacy of Work	.30***	.30***	.19	.12	.21**
Disdain for Homosexuals	.36***	.32***	.21**	.40***	.04
Pursuit of Status	.16**	.42***	-.06	-.04	.05
Total Conformity	.56**	.51**	.48***	.41***	.09
BMS Walker et al., 2000
No Sissy Stuff		.43**	.39**	.50**	.05
Big Wheel		.56**	.18*	.40**	.09
Sturdy Oak		.56**	.30**	.38**	.20**
Give em Hell		.36**	-.02	.22**	.11

Note. * p < .10. ** p < .05. *** p < .01.
¹MRNI= Male Role Norm Inventory; CMNI= Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory; BSM= Brannon Masculinity Scale
²SPC= Success, Power Competition; RE= Restrictive Emotionality; RABBM= Restrictive and Affectionate Behavior Between Men; CBWFR= Conflict Between Work and Family Relations

References:
Berger, J.M., Levant, R.F., McMillan, K.K., Kelleher, W., Sellers, A. (2005). Impact of gender role conflict, traditional masculinity ideology, alexithymia, and age on men's attitudes toward psychological help seeking. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 6, 73-78.

Mahalik, J.R., Locke, B.D., Ludlow, L.H., Diemer, M.A., Scott, R.P., Gottfried, M., Freitas, G. (2003). Development of the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 4, 3-25.

Walker, D.F., Tokar, D.M. & Fischer, A.R. (2000). What are the eight popular masculinity-related instruments measuring? Underlying dimensions and their relations to sociosexuality. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 1, 98-108.

2. Do masculinity ideologies significantly relate to men’s psychological problems? What aspects of masculinity ideologies correlate with men’s problems?

After completing my review of gender role conflict research (O’Neil, 2008), I completed a review of the literature on what variables significantly correlate with masculinity ideology, masculine role norms, and conformity masculine norms significantly (O’Neil, 2010, 2011 a, b). In my review, the research questions was: Does empirical evidence exist that masculinity ideology, gender role conflict and stress, hypermasculinity, and reference group identity dependence significantly correlate with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems?

To answer this question empirical studies that used the following 10 measures were comprehensively reviewed: Masculine Role Norms Scale (MRNS; Thompson & Pleck, 1986), Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI; Levant et al., 1992), Conformity to Masculine Norm Inventory (CMNI; Mahalik et al., 2003), Masculine Gender Role Stress Scale (MGRS; Eisler & Skidmore, 1987), Gender Role Conflict Scale (O’Neil, 2008), Gender Role Conflict Scale for Adolescents (Blazina, Pisecco, & O’Neil, 2005), Adolescent Masculinity Ideology Relationships Scale (Chu, Porche, & Tolman, 2005), Hypermasculinity Inventory (HMI, Mosher & Sirkin, 1984), Auburn Differentiated Masculinity Inventory (ADMI, Burk, Burkhart & Sikorski, 2004), and Reference Group Identity Dependence Scale (RGIDS, Wade & Gelso, 1998).

Table 2 summarizes the studies reviewed for the 10 published masculinity scales. For each study, every dependent variable that significantly correlated with a masculinity subscales is enumerated. Two hundred and forty-nine studies were reviewed. The summary of the masculinity ideology, norms, and conformity scales (MRNS, CMNI, & MRNI) indicated that attitudes about masculine norms have been statistically correlated with a wide variety of psychological and interpersonal problems in 26 studies. Over 58 dependent variables related to men’s problems have been significantly correlated with masculinity ideology, norms, and conformity. A similar pattern was evident with the GRCS and MGRSS studies. The 10 MGRSS studies correlated with 19 dependent variables and the 200 GRCS studies correlated with 87 separate indices of men’s personal and interpersonal problems. The four studies using hypermasculinity scales (HMI & ADMI) suggested that extremes in masculinity ideology were significantly correlated with 25 separate variables. Furthermore, three studies using the RGIDS found relationships between reference group status and eight male problems. Finally, three studies using the GRCS-A and ADMI indicated that masculinity problems and GRC related to 17 negative outcomes for adolescent boys.

The results in Table 2 represent the first summary of empirical research that correlates multiple measures of masculinity ideology, masculine gender role conflict/stress with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems. A careful study of Table 2 reveals some sobering relationships between specific masculinity constructs and dysfunctional living for men and boys. The results of the 249 studies in Table 2 provide a rather convincing case that the operationalized aspects of the masculinity construct that Addis et al. criticize, have significant relationships to men’s and boy’s psychological and interpersonal problems. These findings are important because until recently, empirical research has not confirmed that men’s psychological problems relate to masculinity constructs. The “hazards of being male” is no longer just a title of a once popular paperback but a documented scientific finding in the research.

Table 2

Thompson & Pleck’s Male Role Norm Scale (MRNS) Subscales: Status Norm, Toughness Norm, Anti-femininity Norm
Reference Sources	Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS
Kilianski (2003)	Negative Attitudes Lesbians; Hostile Sexism; Negative Attitudes Toward Women
Thompson & Pleck (1986)	Opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment; Preference for Virgin Wife
Abreu, Goodyear, Campos, Newcomb (2000)	Lack of Ethnic Belonging
Pleck, Sonenstein, & Ku, (1993)	Suspension From School; Drinking & Use of Drugs; Being Picked Up By Police; Coercive Sex
Locke, Newcomb & Good year (2005)	Increased Sexual Risk
Blazina, Eddins, Burridge, & Settle, (2007)	Loneliness; Separation-Individuation Problems
Wilkinson (2004)	Restricted Affectionate Behavior Between Men; Fear of Appearing Feminine; Antigay Attitudes
Jakupcak, Tull, & Roemer (2005)	Overt Hostility & Aggression
Good, Heppner, Hillenband-Gunn, & Wang (1995)	Adversarial Sexual Beliefs; Rape Myths; Psychological Violence
Mahalik’s Conformity To Male Role Scale (CMNI) Subscales: Winning, Emotional Control, Risk Taking, Violence, Power Over Women, Dominance, Playboy, Self-Reliance, Primacy of Work, Disdain for Homosexuals, Pursuit of Status, Total Conformity
Reference Sources	Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS
Mahalik, Locke, Ludlow, Diemer, Scott, Gottfried, & Freitas,(2003)	Social dominance, aggression, muscularity
Mahalik & Lagan, & Morrison (2006)	Unhealthy Alcohol Use; Neglecting Preventive Skin Care; Health Screenings; Not Seeking Help With Emotional Difficulties; Not Going to Health Care Appointments; Getting Into Physical Fights; Difficulty Managing Anger; Taking Risks; Risky Behavior With Automobiles & Sexual Practices
Liu & Iwamoto (2007)	Substance Use; Marijuana Use; Binge Drinking
Mahalik & Rochlen (2006)	Unhealthy Responses to Depression
Mahalik, Levi-Minzi, Walker, (2007)	Health Risks; Few Health Promotion Behaviors
Smiler, (2006)	Sexism
Mahalik, Burns, & Syzdek, (2007)	Lack of Health Promotion Behaviors
Kimmel & Mahalik, (2005)	Internalized Homophobia; Unhealthy Masculine Body Ideal; Distress
Burns & Mahalik (2006)	Poor Sexual Functioning
Mahalik, Piere, & Wan (2006)	Racial Identity: Pre-encounter Phase; Lower Self Esteem; Psychological Distress
Good, Schopp, Thomson, Hathway, Mazurek, Mintz, Sanford-Martens, (2006)	Negative Attitudes About Help Seeking
Cohn & Zeichner (2006)	Laboratory Shocks Given During Competition
Levant’s Male Role Norms Inventory (MRNI) Subscales: Avoidance of Femininity; Fear and Hatred of Homosexuals; Self Reliance; Aggression; Achievement/Status; Non-Relational Attitudes Toward Sex; Restrictive Emotionality
Reference Sources	Psychological and Interpersonal Problems Significantly Correlated with MRNS
Levant, Richmond, Majors, Inclan, Rossello, Heesacker, Rowan (2003)	Alexithymia
Wade & Brittan-Powell (2001)	Negative Attitudes About Racial Identity & Women’s Equality; Positive Attitudes Toward Condoning the Sexual Harassment of Women
Liu (2002)	Racial Group Marginalization; Ethnocentrism
Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers (2005)	Negative Attitudes Toward Help Seeking

See full references here.

3. Do the patterns of men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, CBWFR) correlate with men’s psychological and interpersonal problems? Which problems areas are correlated with GRC?

For each study cited below, GRC has been significantly correlated with one of the 23 dependent variables listed below.

Table 3. GRC and Dependent Variable References

Depression		Anxiety and Stress	Help Seeking Attitudes
Blazina & Jackson, 2009 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Brewer, 1998 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner, 2010 Coonerty-Femiano, Kutzman, Femiano, Gemar, Toner, 2001 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fragoso & Kashabeck, 2000 Friedman, 2011 Good & Mintz, 1990 Good, Robertson, Fitzgerald, Stevens, & Bartels, 1996 Good & Wood, 1995 Hayashi, 1999 Hoyt, 2009 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Kang, 2001 Kelly, 2000 Kim, Choi, Ha, O’Neil, 2006 Larma, 2007 Mahalik & Cournoyer, 2000 Magovcevic & Addis, 2005 Mertens, 2000 Newman, 1997 Peterson, 1999 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe Heppner, & Dixon, 1995 Shepard, 2002 Simonsen, et al., 2000 Tate, 1998; Theodore &Lloyd, 1997 Thomas, 2008 Wolfram, Mohr, & Burchert, 2009		Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Davis, 1998 Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Mertens, 2000, 2001 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Good et al, 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Hetzel, 1998 Kratzner, 2003 Leka, 1998 Van Delft, 1998 Walker, 2008 Blashil & Hughes, 2009 Liang, Salcedo & Miller, 2011 Syzmanski & Carr, 2008 Wester, Vogel, Wei, Mclain, 2006 Wolfran et al, 2009 Hoyt, 2009 Sbratta, 2011 Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei, 2007 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006 Blashill & Hughes, 2009 Stillson,1988 Hetzel, 1998	Bevan, 2010 Blazina & Marks, 2001 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Bursley, 1996 Cortese, 2003 Davis & Liang, 2012 Englar-Carlson, 2001 Englar Carlson, 2001 Good & Wood, 1995 Good et al., 1989 Good et al., 2006 Goodwin, 2009 Groeschel, Wester, Sedivy, 2010 Jai, 2001 James, 2006 Mansfield, Addis, Courtenay, 2005 Jan-Marsi, 2011 Lane & Addis, 2005 Larma, 2007 Mendoza & Cummings, 2001 Osborne, 2004 Pederson & Vogel, 2007 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Rogers, 2009 Segalla, 1996 Shepard, 2009 Simonsen et al., 2000 Steinfeldt & Steinfeldt, 2010 Tsai, 2000 Vogel, Wester, Hammer, Downing-Matibag, 2013 White, 2002 Wisch et al., 1995 Mendoza & Cummings, 2001 Thompson, D. 2009
Stigma	Discrimination	Religion and Spirituality	Coping and Problem Solving
Rogers, 2009 Vogel et al., 2013 Zumas, 2007 Steinfeldt, Steinfeldt, England, & Speight, 2009 Park & Seo, 2009 Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt, 2010 Sheppard, 2009 Vogel, Wester, Hammer, Downing-Matibag, 2013 Magovceviv & Addis, 2005	Liang, Sakedo, Miller 2011 Robinson & Brewster, 2013 Byrce, 2012 Szymananski & Carr, 2008 Zhang, 2012 Szymanski & Ikize, 2012 Szymanski & Carr, 2008 Szymanski & Ikize, 2012 Sanchez, Westefeld, Lui, & Vilain, 2010	Baima, 2012 Heard, 2009 Jurkovic & Walker, 2006 Lammy, 2012 Laurent, 1997 Lily, 1999 Mahalik & Lagan, 2001 Reiman, 1999 Wilkinson, 2004	Bergen, 1997 Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Stanzione, 2005 Strom, 2004 Szymanski & Carr, 2008 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006 Chamberlin, 1993 Good, Heppner, DeBord, Fischer, 2004 Varvel, 2008
Self Esteem	Personality	Psychoeducational Interventions	Negative Attitudes Toward Women and Others
Bingham, Harawa, Williams, 2012 Bursely, 1996 Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner, 2010 Cournoyer, 1994 Davis, 1988 Hayashi, 1999 Hernandez, 2006 Hobza & Rochlen, 2009 Jo, 2000 Laurent, 1997 Lily, 1999 Mahalik et al., 2001 Schwartz et al., 1998 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe et al., 1995 Schwartz & Waldo, 2003 Shek & McEwen, 2012 Swenson, 1998 Vinson, 2011; Symananski & Carr, 2008	Cortese, 2003 Schwartz, Buboltz, Seeman, & Flye, 2004 Chamykarpour, Pourshahbaz, Dolatshahi, Moshtagh, 2012 Fischer, 2007 Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000 Arnold & Chartier, 1984 Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Chamberlin, 1993 Fischer, 2007 Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000	McAnulty, 1996 Davis & Liddell 2002 Kearney et al., 2004 Schwartz, Magee, Griffin, & Dupuis, 2004 Blazina & Marks, 2001 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Rochlen, McKelley, & Pituch, 2006 Schwartz & Waldo, 2003 Gertner, 1994 Maton, Anderson, Burke, Hoover, & Manowski 1998 Braverman, O’Neil, & Owen, 1992 Brooks-Harris, Heesacker, & Mejia-Millan, 1996 Nahon, 1992 Moore, 1993	Kaplan, 1992 Kaplan O’Neil, & Owen, 1993 Serna, 2004 Schwartz & Waldo, 2005 Schwartz et al., 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Harnishfeger, 1998 Covell, 1998 Schwartz, et al., 2005 Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Serna, 2004 Davis, 1997 Kassing et al., 2005 Rando, et al., 1998 Serna, 2004 Covell, 1998 Glomb & Espelage, 2005 Jacobs, 1996 Kearney, King & Rochlen, 2004 Chase, 2000 Cohn & Zeichner, 2006 Johnston, 2005 Hill & Fisher, 2001 Amato & MacDonald, 2011 Amato, 2012 O’Neil, Owen, Holmes, Dolgopolov, Slastenin, 1994
Overall Interpersonal Functioning	Clients and Therapists	Intimacy, Self-Disclosure, and Relationships With Fathers	Marital Satisfaction, Family Dynamics, and Couple’s GRC
Bruch, Berko, & Haase, 1998 Bruch, 2002 Davenport et al., 1998 Breiding, 2004 Breiding, Windle, & Smith, 2008 Celentana, 2000 Land, Rochlen, and Vaugh, 2011 Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004	Burke, 2000 Coonerty-Femiano et al., 2001 Cusack, Deane, Wilson, & Ciarrochi, 2006 Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Mertens, 2000 Noyes, 2004 Van Delft, 1998 Schaub & Williams, 2007 Wisch, Mahalik, Hayes, Nutt, 1995	Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fisher & Good, 1997 Good et al., 1995 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Odes, 2008 Sileo, 1996 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Rainwater, 2011 Sharpe et al., 1995 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001	Alexander, 1999 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow 1992 Leka, 1998 Scott, 2001 Sharpe et al., 1995 Breiding, 2004 Breiding, Windle & Smith, 2008 Celentana, 2000 Rochlen & Mahalik, 2004 Windel & Smith, 2009
Career Development	Attachment, Bonding, and Family Individuation	Body Image and Muscularity	Alcohol and Substance Abuse
Dodson & Borders, 2006 Jome & Tokar, 1997 Jome & Tokar, 1998 Rochlen, Blazina, & Rajhunathan, 2002 Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002 Wolfram, Mohr, and Borchert, 2009 Eimer & Kidd, 2010 Graef, Tokar, and Kaut, 2010 Faircloth, 2011 Rochlemn, Good, & Carver, 2009	Blazina, Novotny, Stevens, & Hunter, 2008 Blazina & Watkins, 2000 Cachia, 2001 Covell, 1998 DeFranc & Mahalik, 2002 Fischer, 2007 Fischer & Good, 1998 Griffin, 2011 James, 2006 Land, Rochlen, Vaugh, 2011 Napolitano, Mahalik, & Kenny, 1999 Schwartz et al., 2004 Selby, 1999 Siffert, 2012	Hobza and Rochlen 2009 Howells, 2010 McConville, 2004 McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay, 2005 Mejias, 2010 Murray & Lewis, 2012 Schwartz, Grammas, Sutherland, Siffert, Bush-King, 2010 Shepard & Rickard, 2012 Schwartz & Tylka, 2008	Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Fahey, 2003 Good, Schoop, Thomson, Hathaway, Mazurek, Mintz, Sandford-Martens, 2006 Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, 2010 Howell, 2010 Kang, 2001 Korucuska & Thombs, 2003 McMahon et al., 2000 Monk & Riccuardelli, 2003 Peterson, 1999 Uy & Massoth, 2013
Alexithymia	Shame and Guilt	Training	College Student Development
Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers, 2005 Eicken, 2003 Fischer & Good, 1997 Hayashi, 1999 Shepard, 2002 Levant, Good, Cook, O’Neilo, Hasan, Smalley, 2010	D. Thomson, 2005 McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar, 2000 Segalla, 1996 Thompkins & Rando, 2003 Thomas, 2008 Thomson, 2005 Vu, 2000	Wester, Vogel, & Archer, 2004 Spillman, 2007 Sbratta, 2011 Holohan, 2008 Murphy 2001 Murtagh, 2012 Wester & Vogel, 2002	Davis & Lidell, 2002 Goodwin, 2009 Nelson, 2012 Sosoke, 2011 Syzdek, Beatty, Kellom, & Farr, 2005 Stanzione, 2005

See full references here.

4. Does men’s GRC (SPC, RE, RABBM, & CBWFR) relate to gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations of self and others in both the intrapersonal and interpersonal realms? For each study cited below, GRC has been significantly correlated with the 23 dependent variables listed below.

Table 4.

Self-Devaluations
Internalized heterosexism Szymanski & Carr, 2008	Self-Objectification Schwartz, Bush-King, 2011	Perceived Racism Liang, Salcedo, Miller, 2010
Negative feeling about being gay Sanchez, Westefeld, & Liu, 2010	Internalized Racism Wester, Vogel, Wei, McLain, 2006	Homonegativity Ervin, 2003 Sanchez, Westefeld, Li, & Vilain, 2010
Self-Esteem Berko, 1994 Bursley, 1996 Cournoyer, 1994 Davis, 1998 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000 Kim et al., 2001 Laurent, 1997 Mahalik et al., 2001 Schwartz et al., 1998 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991	Depression Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Brewer, 1998 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Coonerty-Femiano, Jutzman, Femiano, Gemar, Toner, 2001 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fragoso & Kashabeck, 2000 Good & Mintz, 1990 Good & Wood, 1995 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Kang, 2001 (continued in next box)	Depression (continued) Magovcevic & Addis, 2005 Mertens, 2001 Newman, 1997 Peterson, 1999 Good, Robertson, Fitzgerald, Stevens, & Bartels, 1996 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe, Heppner, & Dixon, 1995 Shepard, 2002 Simonsen, et al., 2000 Tate, 1998 Theodore, 1997
Negative Attitudes Toward “Outness” Sanchez, 2002 Sanchez et al., 2009 Kelly, 2000 Kim, Choi, Ha, O’Neil, 2006 Mahalik & Cournoyer, 2000	Shame & Shame Proneness McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar, 2000 Segalla, 1996 Thompkins & Rando, 2003 Thomson, 2005
Self-Restrictions
Emotional Irritation Wolfram, Mohr, & Borchert, 2009	Emotional Dysregulation Cohn, Jakupcak, Seibert, Hildebrandt, 2010	Stigma toward career counseling Graef, Tokar, & Kaut, 2010
Hopelessness Birthistle, 1999 Brewer, 1998	Physical and Psychological Strain Stillson, 1988	Social and Self Stigma Park & Seo, 2009
Stigma associated with counseling Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, Arndt, 2010	Difficulty Identifying Feelings Wong, Pituch & Rochlen, 2006	Global levels of Psychological Stress Hetzel et al., 1998
Greater emotional inexpressiveness Davenport et al., 1998	Loneliness Blazina, Settle, & Eddins, 2008	Self-Self disclosure Swenson, 1998 Horhoruw, 1991
Shyness Berko, 1994 Bruch, 2002 Bruch et al., 1998	Lack of intimacy and male friendship Sileo, 1996	Dyadic adjustment Breiding, 2005 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow, 1992
Stigma for seeking psychological help Steinfeldt, Steinfeldt, England, Speight; 2009	Negative Attitudes Toward Problem Solving Chamberlin, 1993	Parenting dissatisfaction and a lack of parenting self-efficacy Alexander, 1999
Coping Bergen 1997 Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Stanzione 2005 Strom, 2004 Wester, Kuo et al., 2006	Marital satisfaction Alexander, 1995 Brewer, 1998 Campbell & Snow, 1992 Sharpe et al., 1995	Greater career counseling stigma, decreased willingness to engage in career counseling Rochlen et al., 2002 Rochlen & O’Brien, 2002
Personality styles: of neuroticism, introversion, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, aggressiveness, narcissism, Cortese, 2003 Kratzner, 2003 Schwartz et al., 2004	Immature and neurotic defenses (projection, denial, and isolation) and defenses that are turned against others Mahalik, Cournoyer, DeFranc, Cherry, & Napolitano, 1998	Alexithymia Berger, Levant, McMillan, Kelleher, & Sellers, 2005 Eicken & Boswell, 2002 Fischer & Good, 1997 Hayashi, 1999 Shepard, 2002
Intimacy Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Fisher & Good, 1997 Good et al., 1995 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Sharpe et al., 1995 Theodore & Lloyd, 2001 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001	Stress Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Good et al., 2004 Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000 Hetzel, 1998 Hetzel, Davenport, & Brooks, 1998 Kratzner, 2003 Leka, 1998 Van Delft, 1998	Marital adjustment, lower daily marital happiness, greater depressive symptomatology, and greater negative affect for women Breiding, 2003, 2004 Breiding & Smith, 2002 Celentana, 2000
Anxiety Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Burke, 2000 Bursely, 1996 Cournoyer & Mahalik, 1995 Davis, 1988 Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Mertens, 2000, 2001 Sharpe & Heppner, 1991 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000	Psychological distress including problems with hostility, compulsiveness, social discomfort, paranoia, psychoticism, obsessive-complusivity, and interpersonal sensitivity Good et al., 1996 Hayes & Mahalik, 2000	Attachment Problems To Parents Blazina & Watkins, 2000 Cachia, 2001 Covell, 1998 DeFranc & Mahalik, 2002 Fischer, in press Fischer & Good, 1998 James, 2006 Napolitano, Mahalik, & Kenny, 1999 Schwartz, 2001 Schwartz et al., 2004 Selby, 1999
Personality: Styles, Types, Models, Ego Identity, & Authoritarianism Cortese, 2003 Schwartz, Buboltz, Seeman, & Flye, 2004 Fischer, in press Kratzner, 2003 Serna, 2004 Sipes, 2005 Tokar et al., 2000 Arnold & Chartier, 1984 Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Rounds, 1994 Chamberlin, 1993	Help seeking attitudes and preference for help Blazina & Marks, 2001 Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Bursley, 1996 Cortese, 2003 Englar-Carlson, 2001 Englar Carlson & Vandiver, 2001 Good & Wood, 1995 Good et al., 1989 Good et al., 2006 James, 2006 Lane & Addis, 2005 Osborne, 2004 Robertson & Fitzgerald, 1992 Segalla, 1996 Simonsen et al., 2000 Tsai, 2000 White, 2002 Wisch et al., 1995
Self-Violations
Low and high health risk Courtenay & McCreary, 2010	Chronic self-destructiveness Naranjo, 2001	High risk behaviors Courtenay & McCreary 2001
Negative alcohol-related consequences Groweschel, Wester, Sedivy, 2010	Eating disorder symptomatology Blashill & Vander Wal, 2009	Suicide attempts, acceptability, and risk Houle, Mishara, Chagnon, 2007
Self Objectification Schwartz, Grammas, Sutherland, Siffert, & Bush-King, 2011	Substance/alcohol abuse Blazina & Watkins, 1996 Fahey, 2003 Kang, 2001 Korucuska & Thombs, 2003 McMahon et al., 2000 Monk & Riccuardelli, 2003 Peterson, 1999	Suicidal probability, amount of GRC for suicidal vs. non-suicidal Borthwick, 1997 Borthick et al., 1997 Houle, 2004
Devaluations By Others No data to report	Restrictions By Others No data to report	Violations By Others No data to report
Devaluation of Others
Husbands’ GRC reported spousal criticism Breiding, 2003	Sex role stereotyping Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998	Negative attitudes toward African Americans Robinson & Schwartz, 2004
Homophobic and antigay attitudes Kassing et al., 2005 Lindley & Schwartz, 2006 Rounds, 1994 Schwartz, Tylka, & Hood, 2005 Van Hyfte, 1999 Walker et al., 2000 Wilkinson, 2004	Low sex role egalitarianism Addelston, 1995 Englar-Carlson & Vandiver, 2001 Tokar, Fischer, & Staub, 1998	Restriction of Others No data to report
Violations of Others
Hostile sexism Covell, 1998 Schwartz, et al., 2005	Abusive behaviors and coercion Schwartz et al., 1998 Senn et al., 2000	Dating violence Harnishfeger, 1998
Sexually aggressive behaviors and likelihood of forcing sex Kaplan, 1992 Kaplan O’Neil, & Owen, 1993 Serna, 2004	Hostility towards women Rando, Rogers, & Brittan-Powell, 1998 Senn et al., 2000 Serna, 2004	Rape myth acceptance Davis, 1997 Kassing et al., 2005 Rando, et al., 1998 Serna, 2004
Positive attitudes toward and tolerance for sexual harassment Covell, 1998 Glomb & Espelage, 2005 Jacobs, 1996 Kearney, King & Rochlen, 2004	Self Reported Violence & Aggression Amato, 2005 Chase, 2000 Cohn & Zeichner, 2006 Johnston, 2005	Actual Destructive or Violent Behavior Toward Others Amato, 2005 Breiding, 2003, 2004, Breiding & Smith, 2002; Johnston, 2005, Kaplan et al., 1993

See full references here.

5. Is there evidence that gender role devaluations, restrictions, and violations relate to minority men’s psychological problems?

Table 5. Diversity Research on Gender Role Conflict Self Devaluations, Restrictions and Violations

Gender Role Conflict Self-Devaluations	Authors	Group
Internalized heterosexism	Szymanski & Carr, 2008	Gay men
Homonegativity	Ervin, 2003	Gay men
Negative attitude toward “Being Out”	Sanchez, 2005	Gay men
Negative feeling about being gay	Sanchez, Westefeld, Liu, & Vilain, 2010	Gay men
Self-hate from racism	Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain, 2006	African American Men
Depression	Brewer Coonerty-Femiano, Kutzman, Femiano, Gemar, & Toner, 2001 Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000 Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000; Kang, 2001; Kim, Choi, Heppner, 2012 Jones, 1995; Simonsen, Blazina, & Watkins, 2000 Tate, 1998; Theodore, 2007 (?)	African American Men Sexual Abuse Victims Mexican American Men Japanese Men Korean Men Gay men Australian Men
Self-esteem	Hayashi, 1999 Jo, 2000; Kim, Hwang, & Choi, 2005 Laurent, 1997 Mahalik, Locke, Theordore, Cournoyer, & Lloyd, 2001	Japanese Men Korean Men African American Men Australian Men
Shame	McMahon, Winkel, & Luthar 2009	African American
Gender Role Conflict Self Restrictions	Author	Group
Coping	Birthistle, 1999 Jones, 1998 Wester, Kuo, & Vogel, 2006	Irish Men Gay Men Chinese Canadian Adolescents
Anxiety	Hayashi, 1999 Kang, 2001 Jo, 2000 Jones, 1998 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000	Japanese Men Korean college students Korean Men Gay Men Australian Men
Stress	Fragoso & Kashubeck, 2000; Lekd (?)	Mexican American Men
Alexithymia	Hayashi, 1999	Japanese Men
Hopelessness	Birthistle, 1999 Brewer, 1998	Irish Men African American Men
Intimacy	Chartier & Arnold, 1985 Theodore & Lloyd, 2000 Van Hyfte & Rabinowitz, 2001	Canadian Men Australian Men Gay Men
Help Seeking Attitudes	James (2006)	Canadian Men
Gender Role Conflict Self Violations	Authors	Group
Eating Disorder Symptomology	Glashill & Vanderwal, 2009	Gay Men
Substance Use & Abuse	Kang, 2001 Monk & Ricciardelli, 2003	Korean college students Australian Men
Chronic Self-Destructiveness	Naranjo, 2001	Gay Men
Suicidal Attempts or Risk	Houle, Mishara, & Chagnon, 2009	Canadian Men

See full references here.

6. Do Diversity and Multicultural Indices Relate To , Moderate, or Mediate Men’s Gender Role Conflict?

Table 6a shows the variables that correlate, moderate, or mediate GRC for minority men.

Table 6a.

Contextual, Demographic, Multicultural Variables Correlated with GRC For Minority Men:

Race, class, ethnicity, age, stage of life, sex (women and transgendered people), socioeconomic status (SES), educational level, marital status, work roles, nationality, acculturation and assimilation, racial & ethnic identity, machismo ideology & cabalerismo, cultural values, personal & societal discrimination, states of vulnerability, being violent.

Moderators of GRC for Minority Men:

Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity, Asian identity, self-esteem, assimilation into the majority culture, traditional African American religious acculturation, Black identity salience, multicultural inclusive racial identity, attitudes toward help seeking, pre-encounter state of racial identity, depression, stress, acculturation, machismo, acculturation, monocultural versus bicultural status, distress, caballerismo, perceived racism, sex typing of self, homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life, internalized heteoresexism

Mediators of GRC for Minority Men:

Racial identity, psychological stress (?) , internalized racism, norms of the dominant white culture, machismo ideology, homonegativity, shame, guilt, heterosexist discrimination, internalized heterosexism, self-esteem, negative affect, social sensitivity, internalized heterosexism, avoidant coping, and multicultural inclusiveness

Table 6b shows the variables that significantly moderate or mediate GRC for men in general.

Table 6b. Moderators Studies and Gender-Role Conflict (GRC)

Author	GRC as Predictors	Moderator Variable
Robison & Brewster (2013)	GRC	Internalized Heterosexism & GRC
Shek & McEwen (2012)	Less RE	Less ambivalence & confusion about racial identity and Asian identity
Pierce (2012)	GRC	Level of support
Amato (2012)	GRC	Prisoner’s age, violence, religion, family history of crime
Murray & Lewis (2012)	GRC	Age, muscle, height, and body dissatisfaction
Courtenay & McCreary (2011)	RABBM	Multiple high risk behavior
Amato & MacDonald	GRC	Age, drug use, violence, with homeless men
Galligan, Barnett, Brennan, & Israel (2010)	GRC	Resilience
Liang, Salcedo, & Miller (2010)	GRC	Machismo, cabalerismo, perceived stress and racism
Graef, Tokar, & Kaut	GRC	Attitudes toward career counseling stigma, willingness to seek career counseling
Hoyt (2009)	GRC	Emotional expression, emotional processing, age
Windle & Smith (2009)	RE & RABBM	Husband’s withdrawal
Blashill & Hughes (2009)	GRC	Sextyping of self, distress
Wolfram, Mohr, Borchet (2008)	GRC	Worker dissatisfaction, higher irritation, higher depression & anxiety, expressiveness, instrumentality
Wester, Christiansan, Vogel, & Wei (2007)	RABBM	?
Thomas (2005)	GRC	Psychological Reactance
McCreary, Saucier, & Courtenay (2005)	SPC & CBWFR	Drive for muscularity
Schwartz, Waldo, Daniel (2005)	RE	Self-esteem, intimidation, & threats
Robison & Schwartz (2004)	White men’s RABBM & SPC	Negative attitudes toward African Americans
Ervin (2003)	GRC	Homonegativity, environmental mastery, purpose in life
Monk & Ricciardelli (2003)	RE	Alcohol & cannabis use
Bruch (2003)	RABBM & RE	Shyness, toughness
Cachia (2001)	GRC	Attachment avoidance
Fragosa & Kashubeck (2000)	GRC(?)	Depression, stress, machismo
Alexander (1999)	RE	Satisfaction and feelings of efficacy as parents
Newman (1998)	GRC	Self-silencing and depression
Lilly (1999)	GRC	Traditional African American religious acculturation, Black male identity, salience
Friedman (2011)	GRC	SES unemployed men (N.S.)
Jana-Masri (2011)	GRC	Religiosity to Islam (N.S.)

TABLE 6c. Mediator Studies

Authors - Studies	Predictors	Mediators	Outcome Variables
Vogel, Wester, Hammer, & owning-Matibag (2013)	RE & RABBM	Stigma	Willingness to refer a friend or family member
Shepard & Rickards (2012)	Drive for Muscularity, GRC	GRC Self-stigma of seeking help, attitudes toward seeking help	Intentions to seek help
Szymanski & Ikizler (2012)	RABBM & heterosexist discrimination	Internalized Heterosexism	Depression
Uy (2011)	Muscularity Ideology	Drinking to cope	Alcohol consumption Drinking problems
Griffin (2011)	Attachment Insecurity	GRC	Sexual compulsivity
Groeschel, Wester, & Sedivy, (2010)	Negative alcohol Related consequences	GRC	Attitude toward help seeking
Choi, Kim, Hwang, & Heppner (2010)	SPC, RE, RABBM	Low self-esteem	Depression & instrumentality
Wester, Arndt, Sedivy, & Arndt (2010)	Greater risk, fewer benefits	GRC	Stigma associated with counseling
Hoyt (2009)	GRC	Emotional depression	Distress explanation
Park & Seo (2009)	GRC	Self & Social Stigma	Less positive & willingness to seek counseling
Blashill & Vanderwal (2009)	GRC	Negative affect, social sensitivity	Eating disorder symptomology
Houle, Mischard, & Chagnon (2009)	GRC	Risk factors of help seeking & social support	Suicidal behavior
Szymanski & Carr (2008)	GRC	Self-esteem and avoidant coping	Psychological distress
Breiding, Windle, & Smith (2008)	GRC	Husband’s criticism, wives’ criticism & self criticism	Marital adjustment
Varvel (2008)	Attitudes toward problem solving	GRC	Psychological functioning
Wester, Christianson, Vogel, & Wei (2007)	RE	Social support	Psychological support
Wester, Kuo, Vogel (2006)	SPC, RE, RABBM	Avoidant & engagements coping	Psychological stress
Batty (2006)	GRC	Task coping	Therapy preference
Wester, Vogel, Wei, & McLain (2006)	GRC	Racial identity as internalized racism (self-hatred)	Psychological distress
Sipes (2005)	Perceived gender role socialization	Masculinity Ideology	GRC
Carter, Williams, & Juby (2005)	GRC	Racial Identity	Severity of problem
Serna (2004)	GRC	Personality	Sexual aggression against women
Breiding (2004)	GRC	Husband’s observed hostility	Wives’ marital adjustment
White (2002)	RE & RABBM	Multicultural Inclusiveness	Attitudes toward help seeking
Hill & Fischer (2001)	Masculine Gender Role Components & GRC	Entitlements & General Entitlement	Rape related variables
Swenson (1998)	RE	Age	Self-disclosure
Tokar & Jome (1998)	GRC	Career choice traditionality	Vocational interests
Covell (1998)	GRC	Sexist attitudes, age	Likelihood to sexually harassment
Bruch, Berko, Haas (1995)	Personality Attributes	RE	Interpersonal competence
Davis (1987)	GRC	Sex Role Salience	?
Baima (2012)	GRC	Spiritual well-being	Psychological Distress (N.S.)
Tsan, Day, Schwartz, & Kimbrel (2011)	Behavioral inhibition, Behavioral activation	(?)	N.S.
Steinfeldt, Rutowski, Vaugh, & Steinfeldt (2011)	GRC	Moral atmosphere and moral functioning	? N.S.
Land, Rochlen, Vaugh (2011)	Maternal bonding	GRC, negative mood regulation	Adult attachment avoidance N.S.
Faircloth (2011)	GRC	Demographics (age, time in the job, education, area of work)	Job satisfaction to explain sex deference N.S.
Hobza & Rochlen (2009)	GRC	Self-esteem	Drive for muscularity N.S.
Daltry (2009)	GRC	Women’s distress tolerance	Quality of athletic life N.S.
Olsen (2000)	GRC	Trait anger	Anger expression

See full references here.

This file provides references to a summary of GRC research found in:

O’Neil, J.M. & Denke, R. (2016). An Empirical review of the gender role conflict research: New conceptual models and research paradigms. In J. Wong and S. Wester (Eds.) APA Handbook of the Psychology of Men and Masculinities. (pp 51-80), Washington, D.C.: APA Books.

These files also have many of the references to the research questions discussed in this part of the web page.

Dr. Jim O'Neil

Research Question 1

Research Question 2

Research Question 3

Research Question 4

Research Question 5

Research Question 6

Research Question 7

O’Neil and Denke Refererences (2016)

References from O'Neil & Denke (2016)